Neurotransmitters, Biology and Behavior Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Neurotransmitters, Biology and Behavior - Essay Example Some of the identified neurotransmitters include acetylcholine, dopamine, epinephrine, norepinephrine, serotonin and gamma-amino butyric acid (GABA). According to Brown (1994), "Neurotransmitters function primarily to communicate between nerve cells in the brain, central nervous system and autonomic nervous system" (p.10). They may be excitatory or inhibitory in function. Acetylcholine and norepinephrine belong to the former category, while dopamine, serotonin, and GABA belong to the latter category. Thus depending on the specificity of the function being performed, neurotransmitters can set in motion appropriate biological reactions and behavior. In the words of Giovannoli (2001), neurotransmitters "influence human behavior, attitude, perception, temperament, love, and aggression, among other things" (p.43). Neurotransmitters have been shown to affect almost every aspect of human life. They affect mood swings, retentive skills, aggression, shyness, paranoia, exhilaration, sleep and even sexual activity or inactivity. They are also associated with disorders like depression, anxiety, schizophrenia, Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease. Dopamine's effect on the body is profound. It plays a dual role in controlling movement as well as emotions.

“Fossil Fuels Improve the Planet” by Alex Epstein Essay Example for Free

â€Å"Fossil Fuels Improve the Planet† by Alex Epstein Essay Part 1: Graphical Representation Part 2: Summary of argument In the article â€Å"Fossil Fuels Improve the Planet† (Epstein, 2013), Alex Epstein’s main claim was that fossil fuels should be used without restriction as they provide reliable and affordable energy that improves the lives of mankind. Aiming to convince the reader fossil fuels should be freely used, he first argued that the energy provided by fossil fuels is vital to the health and well-being of mankind. He supported this by stating that processes such as purifying water, mass production of medicine and fresh food, heating and construction are vital in allowing mankind to lead healthy lives and being able to cope in harsh climates. Epstein stressed that none of these things would exist in the modern world without the energy from fossil fuels. Next, he argued that alternatives like renewable energy are not effective. He asserts that renewable energy is unreliable, not cost effective and also unable to be mass-produced. He supported this by saying that even after years of investments from many countries only accounts for less than 0.5% of the planets energy. Finally, Epstein concluded by stating that fossil fuels are not â€Å"dirty energy†. He supported this by saying current technology can reduce waste produced in using fossil fuels to a minimum. He argued that since all processes create some waste, any process can be considered â€Å"dirty† and rejected. Epstein hence contended that mankind should focus on building better lives by reaping the benefits of using fossil fuels rather than worrying about whether processes were â€Å"dirty† or not. Part 3: Evaluation of argument Epstein’s first argument is that the energy provided by fossil fuels is vital to the health and well-being of mankind. The assumption he makes in his argument is that burning fossil fuels is the largest or sole provider of energy to mankind. This is validated by empirical data collected on a  global scale from The World Energy Outlook 2013 (International Energy Agency, 2013) which recorded that 82% of the world’s total energy supply came from fossil fuels in 2011 and will likely only fall to 75% in 2035, remaining the major source of energy for years to come. The argument uses deductive reasoning to prove that the energy provided by fossil fuels is vital to the health and well-being of mankind based on the premise that the energy powers important machines and processes that mankind needs to thrive. Epstein supports this by listing processes such as purifying water, the mass production of medicine and fresh food, heating and construction. He states that these processes provides necessities that are key in keep sickness at bay and allowing mankind to cope with the often harsh climate, leading to what he claims to be the healthiest and cleanest living environment in human history. The evidence Epstein provides shows that the affordable reliable energy from fossil fuels provides important necessities such as clean water and medicine that is vital to the health and well-being of mankind. This is congruent to Dennis Anderson’s points in â€Å"World Energy Assessment: Energy and the Challenge of Sustainability† (United Nations Development Programme, 2000, Chapter 11 p.394) where he reports that the presence of modern sources of energy can improve the standards of living for billions of people across the globe, especially those in developing countries who lack access to basic services and necessities similar to those described by Epstein due to consumption levels of energy being far lower than those in industrialized countries. This shows the state of people who lack access to modern energy and how their lives can be greatly improved if more energy was available to them. Therefore since Epstein’s argument uses deductive reasoning to prove that the energy provided by fossil fuels is vital to the health and well-being of mankind, since the premise is true, the conclusion of the argument is valid. References Anderson, D. United Nations Development Programme, United Nations. World Energy Council. (2000). World Energy Assessment: Energy and the challenge of sustainability. New York, NY: United Nations Development Programme In: Chapter 11 Energy and Economic Prosperity. (P.394-411) Retrieved from http://www.undp.org/ International Energy Agency Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (2013). World energy outlook 2013. Paris: OECD/IEA. Retrieved from http://www.worldenergyoutlook.org/ Epstein’s second argument is that alternative sources of energy to fossil fuels are not as effective. The argument uses inductive reasoning as Epstein focuses on 2 alternative sources of energy and attempts to convince the reader of his argument based on their observed limitations. The premises offered are that renewable energy such as solar and wind is unreliable, not cost effective and also unable to be mass-produced. He is able to support this with his claim that even after years of investments from many countries renewable energy only accounts for less than 0.5% of the planets energy. He also supports this by quoting examples of some richer countries that have been unsuccessful in making renewable energies usable on a larger scale even after spending large sums of money, resulting in rising youth unemployment rates as high as 50% in Spain and electrical prices doubling in the case of Germany. These cases and facts accurately shows the limitations of renewable energies ment ioned in his premises. This is supported by Professor Barry Brook in his in-depth critique on renewable energy â€Å"Renewable Limits† (Brook, 2009, TCASE 4 7) where he states that input for energy for solar and wind is unreliable and also shows how costly and economically unfeasible it is to make solar and wind plants reliable on a global scale. The report demonstrates this by calculating the large amounts of materials and investment needed to make each renewable energy source reliable on a global scale e.g. 1,250,000 tonnes of concrete and 335,000 tonnes of steel per day from 2010 to 2050 for wind power to be reliable. Therefore, the facts in the premises Epstein offers are true. However, he chooses to purely focus on solar and wind as alternatives to fossil fuels and not on other more promising alternative sources of energy such as hydroelectric power or nuclear. Although he mentions them in his argument, acknowledging them as able to provide more significant and reliable power compared to solar and wind, Epstein fails to go any further in depth than that. The World Energy Outlook 2012 (International Energy Agency, 2012) showed that renewable energy is likely to grow to become the second-largest energy source by 2015, with its share of global power generation rising from 20% in 2010 to 31% by 2035 mostly stemming from hydroelectric power and nuclear power. Although the report states that this depends on continued subsidies, subsidies for renewable energy are also projected to reach $240 billion per year in 2035 from $44 billion in 2010, for 31% of global power. The report suggests that given enough time renewables like hydroelectric power and nuclear could be produced on a wide enough scale to compete with fossil fuels. This shows that the other alternatives not evaluated fully by Epstein are definitely gaining traction and support around the world and are able to produce affordable and reliable energy as well, potentially on a global scale given time. Although he claims to have focused only on solar and wind as environmentalists , opponents of fossil fuels, often only champion solar and wind power over nuclear and hydroelectric power, it is a very weak reason to not go into detail about these alternatives that are clearly gaining much traction and support around the world as shown in the source. Hence, Epstein fails to consider the full scope of alternatives in his argument and seems to focus only on alternatives that have clear limitations to strengthen his argument. Since his argument uses inductive reasoning to prove that alternative sources of energy to fossil fuels are not effective, based on the premises provided not painting a complete picture of the issue at hand, and the fact that the alternatives ignored show more promise than the ones mentioned in the premises, his argument is weak and not convincing. References Brook, B (2009). Renewable Limits | Brave New Climate. Retrieved from http://bravenewclimate.com/renewable-limits/ International Energy Agency Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (2012). World energy outlook 2012. Paris: OECD/IEA. Retrieved from http://www.worldenergyoutlook.org/

Examining The Social Structure Theories In The Economy Criminology Essay

Examining The Social Structure Theories In The Economy Criminology Essay Social structure theories assert that the disadvantaged economic class position is a primary cause of crime.   The theories state that neighborhoods which are lower class force of strain, frustration and disorganization that create crime (Shanali-Justicia). Social Disorganization, Strain Theory and Culture Deviance are a few of the social structure criminology theories that are used to explain crime. Other social theories that fall into this category are Culture of Poverty and the truly disadvantage theory. The theory of social disorganization is that crime and delinquency is caused when communities fail. There is a breakdown of families, church, schools and government in the community. Social disorganization theorizes that these relationships reinforce positive behavior, a sense of community responsibility and concern for the social network within a close area (Hardy, 2010). When these relationships breakdown or do not exist the communities and its inhabitants lose its sense of structure and this is believed to be the causation of crime and delinquent behavior. The cycle of Social Disorganization is thought to start with poverty, where there is lack of opportunities and racial discrimination. The lack of opportunities breaks down the social institutions and organizations and this leads to the erosion of traditional values. This breakdown leads juveniles to seek the acceptance from peers and a sense of belonging from gangs. Once these gangs form there is a loss of social control or it b ecomes less effective. When this control is lost neighborhoods become more prone to crime and this detracts from investors which reduces opportunities in the community. Eventually this becomes the norm and this way of life is passed onto the next generation. The formation of criminal careers if formed and the cycle continues for some while others grow out of their delinquent phase. Populace in these disorganized areas can feel neglected, frustrated and ostracized from the economic mainstream, they develop feelings of hopelessness and anger which sociologist state are signs of strain (Siegel Welsch, 2008, p. 89). This strain develops and theorist state it leads people to commit criminal offenses, because they lack the opportunities for success. The opportunity for a better life seems to be beyond their reach, so people turn to deviant behavior to achieve their goals because they feel that society has let them down. Cultural Deviance Theory is a combination of both the effects of social disorganization and strain. It is thought that the lower socio-economic populaces create an independent subculture where they have their own rules and values. Juveniles in lower class neighborhoods adapt to their environment, they become cynical and have no respect for authority. Conventional values make little sense to a youth whose role models may include gun runner, drug deale rs and pimps (Siegel Welsch, 2008, p. 91). Teachers and other authority figures become secondary citizens to these juveniles and they cannot conform to the rules as other members of society do. These juveniles experience a form of culture conflict as a result they never achieve their goals and eventually get caught up in the life of gangs and deviant behavior. The populace of this poverty culture is marked by frustration of their environment. There is a lack of trust of police and government and this mistrust stalls people from this environment from seeking other advantageous opportunities or ones that are available to them. The results of this environment are depression and possibly psychological issues. Inner-cities that suffer from economic changes have an increase of crime; they become ingrained in a cycle of poverty, unemployment and crime. These people are considered the truly disadvantage living in communities with poorly organized social networks, alienated populations and high crime (Siegel Welsch, 2008, p. 85) Theorists such as Clifford Shaw, Henry McKay, and Robert Merton have similar views on social structure theories. While Elijah Anderson believed that juveniles committed crimes because of their socio-economic living conditions there were rendered incapable of achieving success (Siegel Welsch, 2008, p. 92). A juvenile turned to crime because it was their only way of achieving success. They feel that their only option is to join gangs and engage in behavior that is deviant. Clifford Shaw and Henry McKay believe that delinquency is mainly the consequence of a collapse of institutional, community-based controls (Wong, 2009). Shaw and McKay believed that people that lived in situations such as these responded to the disorganization of their environment. They believe that delinquent behavior was a result of social disorganization, because the neighborhoods they lived in were transitional neighborhoods. This was an area where there was a shift in population; the middle class neighborhood would transition to a mixture of lower class people. When this transition would occur the family would become rooted in the neighborhood and the values that they developed such as belonging to gangs and criminal behavior would be passed onto the next generation. Similar to Shaw and McKay, Robert Merton believe that society was the cause of deviant behavior, because society put pressure on people to achieve the American dream. Merton believed that society expected an individual to conform or either work within its structure. When a person cannot conform they become members of a deviant subculture. Merton argued that upper class children are less likely to commit delinquent acts because they have the means and ability to obtain an education and stable employment. While lower class juveniles do not have the same means they feel the social and psychological strain or anomie. Merton believed this condition caused juveniles to commit criminal acts to achieve their goals and even if they were offered the means to achieve these goals legally, they would reject those acceptable means of deviant ones (Siegel Welsch, 2008, p. 89). The theory that I most associate with my belief that juveniles commit crimes is the based Cultural Deviance theory. I think that juveniles conform to their environment and as a result have a lower set of goals and values than those of society. Juveniles that grow up in lower economic levels become hardened in their environment and develop an outer shell that shows no fear and have accepted because they play hard they will probably die young. These juveniles do not hesitate to use violence to get the message across nor do they consider the consequences of their actions. The goals that these juveniles set for themselves are reaching the top level in their gangs and increasing their drug sales. These juveniles cannot understand the concept of hard work and setting realistic goals like other members of society and because they fail to achieve success in life they are quick to blame the man for their failures.

The Bill of Rights Essay examples -- Politics Political Civics

The Bill of Rights After the Revolution, the States adopted their own constitutions, many of which contained a Bill of Rights. The Americans still faced the challenge of creating a central government for their new nation. In 1777 the Continental Congress adopted the Articles of Confederation, which were ratified in 1781. Under the Articles, the states retained their â€Å"sovereignty, freedom and independence,† while the national government was kept weak and inferior. Over the next few years it became evident that the system of government that had been chosen was not strong enough to completely settle and defend the frontier, regulating trade, currency and commerce, and organizing thirteen states into one union. So in the summer of 1787 delegates from the twelve states convened in Philadelphia to draft a new Constitution. They proposed a strong national government that would assume many of the powers previously imposed upon the states. (1) â€Å"No sooner than had the Continental Congress laid the proposed Constitution before the people for ratification, † Irving Brant writes, â€Å"than a cry went up: it contained no Bill of Rights.†(2) People objected because the liberties they had fought for in the Revolution were not being protected by the Constitution, and then could be ignored by the federal government. The Anti-Federalist called for another convention to outline a Bill of Rights before the Constitution was approved. The Federalist, fearing that the progress would unravel completely, urged immediate ratification. With the understanding of a Bill of Rights to follow later. Eventually the Federalist prevailed. By 1788, eleven states had ratified the Constitution. Six states , however, sent Congress proposals for amendments, modeled on their state constitutions and designed to protect individual rights. James Madison realized that the public desire for a Bill of Rights could not be ignored. In 1789, after reviewing the state proposed amendments and the state Bill of Rights to be considered by Congress, he proposed nine amendments to be considered by Congress for insertion into the text of the Constitution. After deliberation, debate, and some alterations, the House and Senate voted to add the amendments on the end of the Constitution and sent twelve amendments to the states for ratification. Only ten of theses were ratified and from those are what we kno... ...l want to be protected and assured of our freedoms and rights and don’t like it when those rights are threatened. The initial Constitution and Bill of Rights wasn’t written to include everyone in the rights and freedoms of citizens. And it was seen then that our needs as a nation would change and these documents would need to be able to expand and grow with the country. The Bill of Rights has been one of the corner stones that we as Americans have enjoyed and taken for granted for the many years since its creation. The rights granted to us in the Bill of rights are the same right many people of the world are still fighting for even to the very day. We as Americans have become so accustom to having these rights we often take these rights for granted. There is no way of denying it’s historical significance, if you just stop and try and imagine your life without your freedoms and rights. These freedoms are what makes this country what it is and it also allows the people within the United States to enjoy the freedom dreamed about by the founders of this country as well. But as a country of whole, we take our rights and freedoms that our ancestors fought for, for granted.

Beyond Beyond Fashion

There is a trick of my writing teacher: When we finish reading an essay, first he asks: â€Å"What is it about? † We answer, then he asks:† If that's not what the essay is about, then what is it about? † So we answer again, striving to squeeze out every drop of intelligence out of our brain cells. Repetitively, after we are willingly tortured by this same question for three more rounds, the essence of the essay shows up. This was exactly the same feeling I received from the exhibition Charles James: Beyond Fashion, displayed by the Costume Institution of the Metropolitan Museum ofArt. Throughout the exhibition, I was asked this question over and over again: If fashion is not what the exhibition about, then what? Started from Maya and lasting until August 10, the special exhibition of Costume Institute of Metropolitan Museum presents the audience signature pieces of Charles James, an Anglo fashion designer who was active during the post-WWW 20th century in America. The exhibition is held in the special exhibition galleries on the Museum's first floor and The Costume Institute's Anna Winter Costume Center on the ground floor, including one small adjunct hall showing documents.Fifteen evening ball gowns and about fifty ready-to- wears are displayed. With intricate costumes, James first of all stood out as a king of fabric sculptor without crown beyond the simple definition of a fashion designer who made clothes that fit in the trend. The costumes were indeed â€Å"amazing†Ã¢â‚¬â€- quoting the most commonly used word of the visitors. James' original spiral cut, almost seamless design and the free draping technique are still not nearly comparable in the present day.They were not Just fashion, but sculptures that go around human body with full artistry and could stand the test of pure aesthetic examination. However, if the costumes were examined even beyond their tags of â€Å"fashion† and beyond their sculptural appearances, the int ention of these designs was actually in some degree provoking, if we examine the quotes of James that were written on the walls of the halls. A quote of James revealed that his ideal of fashion was largely sexual. â€Å"The feminine figure,† he believed, was â€Å"intrinsically wrong†.Thereby he claimed, â€Å"All my seams have meaning, they emphasize something about the body. † In this way, he striver to â€Å"perfect† the female body, however destroying the natural beauty of female odd at the same time. As a result, the innate motive beyond the fashion appearance of these designs was sexism aesthetics of the traditional malpractice, which should have been eliminated a long time ago. James' fastidious and male-centric aesthetic of female figure beyond his ability as an artist was further revealed by details in his designs. In the actual practice, James overemphasized the female parts.First, the tops gather into sharp and pointing horn. This design was ma de possible by darts of the gowns' tops following the traditional Rococo corset, which once made the teenage arils and young wives' waistlines tiny but at the same time cruelly took away many of their lives. At the same time, the bottoms of gowns spread widely. Either the gowns had big volume of piled-up drapes on the hip, or they were supported directly by two bustles, which was also a typical classic masculine aesthetic that addressed female's ability of bearing kids.Overall, James' costumes remade a women's body into a funnel shape. In addition, the bosoms were preferably shaped as cones, which presented women lasciviously. Even in the Victorian times, this male-dominant esthetics was giggly controversial for these characteristics defined females simply attractive in the way of a reproduction and bearing machine. In the post World War II America, after the liberation of female body brought by the ‘H' dresses, this Victorian renaissance was a recess that brought female back into the prison of clothes.Rather, in today's aspect, these aesthetics of female body are morbid. For females, it is the blood and tears in females' costume history. These characteristics, as â€Å"beautiful† as some might consider, are dross of the Victorian culture that should never be reused to improve he figure or even hinted in a modern design. I have to say, peeking into the motive of the designer, I saw an egocentric though man who are arrogant in the way he examining females. Finally, the end of the exhibition explored what truly was beyond this fashion designer Charles James explored even deeper.Beyond a fashion godfather, a king of fabric sculpturing, and a self-involved and orthodox masculine artiest, the documentary hall showed James as a person. Traditional mannequins and sketches were shown. While at the meantime, the document room also showed he videos clips of James kissing his finale model on her cheek before going on the runway, and an important list of cele brities and artists typed by James that James would like to design for. The tone of the list was playful, ironic and effusive. There were as well glowing critics, basically eulogies.In this room, though most people do not linger in it, the most interesting information what the artist was available, and it gave anyone who wanted to look deeper into the motive and inspiration of him a lucid answer: genially eccentric, Charles James' boldness and arrogance toward there led to his unceasing pursuit of perfection and the exploration of impossibility, which explained his surprising designs and the elaborate way of fabricating the costumes. As an exhibition of the Metropolitan museum, there were some commendable displaying methods in this exhibition indeed.The exhibition started with a theatrical opening. At the entrance, the world darkened down, and with the wall showing the name of the exhibition and a classic walking mannequin (a woman-shape body model) of James, the bright outer world and the dark inside world were clearly vided. There was as if a magical twilight moment, indicating the arrival of something brilliant in the darkness. After the prologue, I was almost brought into Sesame's studio on 699 Madison Street by muslin samples of his gowns posing around his famous â€Å"butterfly' sofa, recreating the scene of the studio and the salon of James.Inside the hall, the gowns were arranged in a spiral shape, going around his best- known masterpiece: Clover Leaf Ball Gown 1953. The x-ray analysis as well as the animation simulator explained the inner structure of the clothes by showing the involutes plastic bones and complicated drapes in the layers of fabric. The application of new technology treated fashion so scientifically —-as if a real piece of architecture—-that it gave even the most general audience a chance to think about the materialist word â€Å"fashion† in a whole new way.On the pads that showed the information of exhibits, a fe w hints about this sexual intentions of James' designs by showing the costumes of inspiration from the Victorian time, without explaining the underlying meaning of the original design. Though implicit about the word â€Å"sexual†, Hess pictures purposefully gave the audience a clue to the intention but still left them room to think that what was truly beyond fashion beside the artsy structure, allowing their own interpretation.Deliberately, the exposition of the clothes revealed the museum's respect to the master James, for his elaborate effort paid beneath the fabric. Furthermore, the exhibition's respect was also to the audience, as the museum brought fashion back to the ground, accessible to a general audience, while it respect the individual thinking by leading the audience to think about what was truly beyond cushion instead of giving out a definite answer. Still, compare to the art value of the exhibits, the display of the exhibition was fairly not a highlight.The light ing in the main halls was a disaster. Firstly, the semi-dark lighting environment in the black hall was a click. Comparing to other costume exhibitions at the Met Museum, this technique was so widely used that this trick did not tell anything about the artist. It was even anti-characteristic. James had a preference for dark colors. However, the semi darkness created a hostile environment for the audience to see the details. Especially since flash was not allowed, without a professional camera, I could not capture any details of the dark coats and gowns beside their silhouettes.And since the photos could not be used as long-term documents, the educational function of the museum in this aspect was largely sacrificed. Additionally, the semi-darkness also brought a sense of heaviness to the costumes. To illustrate, one of the best-known gown called â€Å"Swan† was named for the lightness of the peplum, which was composed of six layers of delicate chiffon. Nonetheless, with the li ghting, I did not see the eighteens at all because the semi-dark casting light could not go through and light up the costume like natural light.Therefore, what I saw was an impenetrable broom instead of the airy dress, which was not influenced by gravity. Overall, the display was mismatched with the costumes, even though there were few novel techniques applied. The masterpieces were as if sunk in a Jar platitude. The title Beyond Fashion made me feel confused and enthralled when I first stepped in that dark hall, yet I felt illuminated and preoccupied when I stepped back to the bright outer world. The exhibition successfully pushed one to think about the essence beyond appearance by presenting the costumes in different layers and angles.An audience could feel the question of what was beyond fashion throughout the exhibition. The magic would not happen until the very end, where one could confidently give out his/her own answer, like the answer to fifth round of questioning of my writ ing teacher. As for me, beyond fashion, beyond structure, beyond male chauvinism and beyond all his drama, I saw an aloof, fastidious, nostalgic, self- involved, narcissistic yet incredibly serious and genius about fashion soul of this master, this man.

Effect of Coffee Essay

Abstract The present study was undertaken to evaluate the use of ground roasted coffee (Coffee Arabica; GRC) as a natural feed additive in practical fish diets and its impact on growth, feed utilization, biochemical variables, and body composition of Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus (L. ). Ground roasted coffee was added to the ingredients of tested diets to represent 0. 0 (control), 0. 5, 1. 0, 2. 0, or 5. 0 g/kg diet. Fish (1. 9 Â ± 0. 03 g) were distributed to various treatments at a rate of 20 fish per 80-L aquarium and fed one of the experimental diets for 10 weeks. No growth-promoting influences of GRC were observed; however, the optimum fish growth and feed utilization were obtained at 0. 0 – 1. 0 g GRC/kg diet. The inclusion of GRC in fish diet over 1. 0 g/kg diet reduced fish growth, feed consumption, and the protein contents in fish body. The highest lipids and ash contents were obtained at 5. 0 g GRC/kg diet. Glucose, plasma protein, and plasma lipids decreased significantly, meanwhile aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), and creatinine increased significantly in fish fed 5. 0 g GRC/kg diet. Fish survival (93. 3 – 97. 8%) was not affect by GRC inclusion in fish diets. These results indicate that GRC supplement is not a promising growth stimulant for Nile tilapia. Keywords: Nile tilapia, ground roasted coffee, Coffee Arabica, fish growth, feed utilization, body composition, biochemical variables, fish health. INTRODUCTION Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus (L. ) is one of the most popular species in Egypt and worldwide (El-Sayed, 2006). As the regular use of antibiotics and chemicals as preventative and curative measures for disease leads to drug-resistant bacteria and harmful effects on the environment (Teuber, 2001; Bachere, 2003; Hermann et al., 2003), alternatives to antibiotics and chemicals to improve the quality and sustainability of aquaculture production have been seen as desirable (Meunpol et al. , 2003; Vaseeharan and Ramasamy, 2003; Li et al. , 2006). Medicinal plants have been used as immune-stimulants for human in China and old civilization for thousands years (Tan and Vanitha, 2004). These plants contain many types of active components such as polysaccharides, alkaloids, or flavonoids that have immuno-stimulating activities in mice, chickens, or human cell lines (Cao and Lin, 2003; Lin and Zhang, 2004). The use of medicinal plants as immuno-stimulants in fish diets has been considered (Abdel-Tawwab et al. , 2010; Ahmad and Abdel-Tawwab 2011; Ahmad et al. ; in press). Many studies have been conducted on using coffee pulp in fish diets and they found adverse effects of coffee pulp on fish growth and feed utilization (Fagbenro and Arowosoge, 1991; Moreau et al. , 2003; Ulloa and Verreth, 2003; Chatzifotis et al. , 2008). Some other studies reported that coffee shows an antioxidant activity because it contains many substances like caffeine, cafestol, kahweol, and chlorogenic acids (Pellegrini et al., 2003; Vinson et al. , 2005). Due to the abundance of antioxidant compounds in coffee, these agents must be seriously considered when elucidating potential pharmacological effects of coffee intake. Therefore, the present research aims to evaluate the effect of ground roasted coffee (GRC) supplementation on growth, feed efficiency, feed consumption, biochemical variables, and proximate composition of Nile tilapia, O. niloticus. MATERIALS AND METHODS Fish culture and feeding regime – Ground roasted coffee (Coffee Arabica; GRC) was obtained from the local market. Five different diets containing 0. 0, 0. 5, 1. 0, 2. 0 and 5. 0 g GRC/kg diet were formulated. The dietary ingredients were thoroughly mixed and moistened by the addition of 100 ml warm water per kg diet and then made into pellets by a mincing machine. The pellets were cut into shape manually, dried in an oven at 55 oC till constant weight was obtained and stored in a freezer at -2 oC until use. Nile tilapia, O. niloticus were obtained from fish hatchery, Central Laboratory for Aquaculture Research, Abbassa, abo-Hammad, Sharqia, Egypt. Before starting the experiment, fish were acclimated and hand-fed to apparent satiation twice a day for 2 weeks. For the experiment, 15 80-L aquaria were used and oxygenated to saturation by air pumps. In each aquarium, 20 randomly distributed fish (1. 9 Â ± 0. 03 g) were stocked. The tested diets were administered to five fish groups with three replicates per each. Fish were hand-fed for satiation thrice daily 5 days a week for 10 weeks. Settled fish wastes along with three-quarter of aquarium’s water were siphoned daily. Siphoned water was replaced by clean and aerated water from a storage tank. Average weight per aquarium was assessed every 2 weeks by group-weighing all fish. Fish were starved for a day before weighing. Fish growth and feed utilization – At the end of the experiment, fish per each aquarium were harvested, counted, and weighed. Fish growth and feed utilization variables were calculated as follows: Weight gain (g) = final weight – initial weight; Specific growth rate (SGR; %/day) = 100 (Ln final weight – Ln initial weight) / days; Feed conversion ratio (FCR) = feed intake (g) / weight gain (g); Protein efficiency ratio (PER) = weight gain (g) / protein intake (g); Fat efficiency ratio (FER) = weight gain (g) / fat intake (g); Energy utilization (EU; %) = 100 x (energy gain / energy intake). Chemical analysis of diets and fish – The proximate chemical analyses of the tested diets and fish samples were done for moisture, crude protein, total lipids, and total ash according to the standard methods of AOAC (1990). Moisture content was estimated by drying the samples to constant weight at 95 oC in drying oven (GCA, model 18EM, Precision Scientific group, Chicago, Illinois, USA). Nitrogen content was measured using a microkjeldahl apparatus (Labconco, Labconco Corporation, Kansas, Missouri, USA) and crude protein was estimated by multiplying nitrogen content by 6. 25. Lipid content was determined by ether extraction in multi-unit extraction Soxhlet apparatus (Lab-Line Instruments, Inc. , Melrose Park, Illinois, USA) for 16 hours. Total ash was determined by combusting dry samples in a muffle furnace (Thermolyne Corporation, Dubuque, Iowa, USA) at 550 oC for 6 hours. Biochemical measurements – At the end of the 10-week feeding trial, feed was withhold 24 hour immediately prior to sampling and five fish per aquaria were randomly chosen and anesthetized with tricaine methanesulfate (20 mg/L). Blood samples were collected from the caudal vessel and the extracted blood was collected in Eppendorf tubes contained 500 U sodium heparinate/mL; used as an anticoagulant. The collected plasma was stored at –20 oC for further assays. Blood glucose, plasma total protein, plasma total lipids, and plasma creatinine were calorimetrically determined according to Trinder (1969), Henry (1964), Joseph et al. (1972), and Henry (1974), respectively. Activities of aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) in plasma were determined colorimetrically according to Reitman and Frankel (1957). Statistical analysis – The obtained data were subjected to one-way ANOVA to evaluate the effect of GRC supplementation. Differences between means were tested at the 5% probability level using Duncan test. All the statistical analyses were done using SPSS program version 10 (SPSS, Richmond, VA, USA) as described by Dytham (1999). RESULTS In the present study, fish grow gradually by time in all treatments (Figure 1). Final fish weight, weight gain, and specific growth rate were not significantly (P < 0. 05) affected with the increase in GRC levels up to 1. 0 g/kg after which growth declined (Table 1). The lowest fish growth was obtained at 2. 0 – 5. 0 g GRC/kg diet. Moreover, fish fed on diets containing 2. 0 and 5. 0 g GRC/kg consumed less diet than the other treatments giving the highest FCR (1. 4 and 1. 5, respectively). Meanwhile, fish fed on 0. 0 – 1. 0 GRC/kg diet consumed approximately the same feed amount giving the same FCR (1. 3; Table 2). Table 1. Growth performance and survival of Nile tilapia fed different levels of ground roasted coffee (GRC) for 10 weeks. |GRC levels |Initial weight |Final weight |Weight gain |SGR |Fish survival | |(g/kg diet) |(g) |(g) |(g) |(%/day) |(%) | |0. 0 |1. 9Â ±0. 03 |14. 5Â ±0. 35 a |12. 6Â ±0. 38 a |2. 90Â ±0. 059 a |95. 6Â ±4. 43 | |0. 5 |1. 9Â ±0. 01 |14. 5Â ±0. 55 a |12. 6Â ±0. 55 a |2. 90Â ±0. 052 a |95. 5Â ±2. 23 | |1. 0 |1. 9Â ±0. 01 |14. 0Â ±0. 58 ab |12. 1Â ±0. 58 ab |2. 85Â ±0. 058 ab |97. 8Â ±2. 23 | |2. 0 |1. 9Â ±0. 03 |12. 5Â ±0. 55 bc |10. 6Â ±0. 52 bc |2. 69Â ±0. 043 bc |93. 3Â ±3. 84 | |5. 0 |1. 9Â ±0. 03 |11. 2Â ±0. 36 c |9. 3Â ±0. 38 c |2. 53Â ±0. 066 c |95. 6Â ±4. 43 | Means having the same letter in the same column are significantly differed at P < 0. 05. |Fish |[pic] | |growth (g)| | | |Weeks | Figure 1. The weight of Nile tilapia (g) fed different levels of ground roasted coffee (GRC) for 10 weeks. Furthermore, no significant differences were observed in fat efficiency ratio, protein efficiency ratio, and energy utilization at 0. 0 – 1. 0 GRC/kg diet levels and the lowest values of these parameters were obtained when fish fed 2. 0 – 5. 0 g GRC/kg diet (Table 2). On the other hand, fish survival range was 93. 3 – 97. 8% with no significant difference (P > 0. 05) among the different treatments. Table 2. Feed utilization by Nile tilapia fed different levels of ground roasted coffee (GRC) for 10 weeks. |GRC levels |Feed intake |FCR |Fat efficiency ratio |Protein efficiency |Energy utilization (%)| |(g/kg diet) |(g feed/fish) | | |ratio | | |0. 0 |16. 0Â ±0. 88 a |1. 3Â ±0. 033 b |10. 50Â ±0. 876 a |2. 86Â ±0. 238 a |32. 0Â ±1. 271 ab | |0. 5 |16. 0Â ±0. 44 a |1. 3Â ±0. 058 b |10. 08Â ±0. 123 a |2. 86Â ±0. 033 a |32. 8Â ±2. 119 a | |1. 0 |16. 1Â ±0. 44 a |1. 3Â ±0. 033 b |9. 45Â ±0. 568 ab |2. 74Â ±0. 154 ab |31. 4Â ±2. 227 ab | |2. 0 |14. 7Â ±0. 78 b |1. 4Â ±0. 033 ab |9. 22Â ±0. 108 b |2. 62Â ±0. 027 b |30. 1Â ±1. 266 bc | |5. 0 |14. 0Â ±0. 58 b |1. 5Â ±0. 058 a |8. 38Â ±0. 390 c |2. 39Â ±0. 106 c |28. 5Â ±0. 203 c |. Means having the same letter in the same column are significantly differed at P < 0. 05. The GRC supplementation in the present study significantly affected the whole-fish body constituents except moisture content, which did not vary significantly (P > 0. 05; Table 3). The protein content decreased significantly, meanwhile lipid and ash contents increased significantly by increasing GRC levels. The lowest protein (15. 1%), the highest lipids (9. 7%) and the highest ash (3. 8%) contents were obtained at 5. 0 GRC/kg diets. In addition, fish fed the control diet exhibited the highest protein (61.4%) and the lowest lipid (25. 5%) contents (Table 3). Table 3. Proximate composition of whole-body (%; on fresh weight basis) of Nile tilapia fed different levels of ground roasted coffee (GRC) for 10 weeks. | GRC levels |Moisture |Crude protein |Total lipid |Total ash | |(g/kg diet) | | | | | |0. 0 |72. 3Â ±0. 31 |17. 2Â ±0. 29 a |7. 1Â ±0. 03 c |3. 2Â ±0. 09 b | |0. 5 |71. 8Â ±0. 28 |16. 9Â ±0. 17 a |7. 7Â ±0. 19 bc |3. 2Â ±0. 07 b | |1. 0 |72. 0Â ±0. 27 |16. 4Â ±0. 18 a |8. 0Â ±0. 16 b |3. 3Â ±0. 13 b | |2. 0 |72. 1Â ±0. 87 |16. 5Â ±0. 53 a |8. 1Â ±0. 26 b |3. 2Â ±0. 17 b | |5. 0 |71. 7Â ±0. 41 |15. 1Â ±0. 30 b |9. 7Â ±0. 15 a |3. 8Â ±0. 21 a | Means having the same letter in the same column are significantly differed at P < 0. 05. The biochemical variables were significantly affected by GRC supplementation (P < 0. 05; Tables 4 and 5). The inclusion of 0. 5 – 5. 0 g/kg diet of dietary GRC resulted in significant decreases in glucose, plasma protein and plasma lipids, whereas the highest values of above parameters were obtained with fish fed the control diet (Table 4). Contrarily, AST, ALT, and creatinine values increased significantly with increasing GRC levels and the highest values of these parameters were obtained with fish fed 5. 0 g GRC/kg (Table 5). Fish fed on the control diets exhibited the lowest values. Table 4. Changes in glucose, plasma protein, and plasma lipids in Nile tilapia fed different levels of ground roasted coffee (GRC) for 10 weeks. |GRC levels |Glucose (mg/dL) |Protein (g/dL) |Lipids (g/dL) | |(g/kg diet) | | | | |0. 0 |67. 53Â ±1. 362 a |1. 77Â ±0. 057 a |2. 69Â ±0. 167 a | |0. 5 |55. 23Â ±1. 468 b |1. 63Â ±0. 064 b |1. 61Â ±0. 067 b | |1. 0 |55. 42Â ±2. 669 b |1. 60Â ±0. 061 b |1. 57Â ±0. 083 b | |2. 0 |52. 63Â ±4. 435 b |1. 51Â ±0. 021 b |1. 53Â ±0. 035 b | |5. 0 |50. 23Â ±1. 386 b |1. 37Â ±0. 056 c |1. 42Â ±0. 059 c |. Means having the same letter in the same column are significantly differed at P < 0. 05. Table 5. Changes in AST, ALT, and creatinine in plasma of Nile tilapia fed different levels of ground roasted coffee (GRC) for 10 weeks. |GRC levels |AST (mg/dL) |ALT (mg/dL) |Creatinine (mg/dL) | |(g/kg diet) | | | | |0. 0 |52. 57Â ±2. 919 d |22. 60Â ±2. 023 d |0. 252Â ±0. 0147 d | |0. 5 |63. 60Â ±2. 386 c |37. 23Â ±3. 187 c |0. 328Â ±0. 0117 c | |1. 0 |76. 90Â ±2. 312 b |45. 20Â ±4. 046 bc |0. 386Â ±0. 0684 b | |2. 0 |80. 13Â ±2. 440 b |48. 46Â ±5. 017 b |0. 393Â ±0. 0392 b | |5. 0 |97. 10Â ±5. 103 a |59. 30Â ±1. 350 a |0. 467Â ±0. 0304 a |. Means having the same letter in the same column are significantly differed at P < 0. 05. DISCUSSION The present study showed that GRC adversely affected Nile tilapia growth at a concentration higher than 1. 0 g/kg diet. These results are in concomitant with Fagbenro and Arowosoge (1991), Moreau et al. (2003), and Ulloa and Verreth (2003) who found adverse effects of coffee-containing diets on fish growth. Similarly, Chatzifotis et al. (2008) reported that sea bream, Sparus aurata did not accept the caffeine-containing diet at a 10 g/kg dose but at doses at or lower to 5 g/kg caffeine appeared not to have a deterrent effect. They also stated that the negative effect of caffeine on sea bream growth can be traced in its increased FCR. Throughout the feeding period the fish in all experimental groups were in good health and dose-related mortalities were not observed, indicating that Nile tilapia can tolerate GRC levels (up to 5 g/kg diet) albeit with reduced growth rate and increased feed conversion ratio. It is worth mentioning that 2 – 5 g GRC/kg diet caused a significant decrease in feed consumption and a significant increase in FCR. These results suggested that GRC did influence the diet palatability, implying that the growth retardation at 2 – 5 g GRC/kg diet may be due to the low diet utilization. It has been inferred that caffeine in GRC, together with polyphenols and tannins can deter feed consumption in fish (Ulloa and Verreth, 2003); possibly because of its bitter taste usually perceived by animals (Mazzafera, 2002; Frank et al. , 2004). Furthermore, Kasumyan and Doving (2003) reported that caffeine inhibited the feeding behavior of turbot, Psetta maxima. The proximate composition of whole-fish body was significantly affected by GRC inclusion (Table 3). However, protein content decreased, meanwhile lipids contents decreased by increasing GRC levels. These results disagree with Kobayashi-Hattori et al. (2005) who reported that caffeine induced lipolysis and thereby reduce the body fat mass and body fat percentage in Sprague–Dawley rats fed on a high fat diet. Chatzifotis et al. (2008) found that caffeine cannot reduce the lipid content of white muscle and liver in heterotherm sea bream when reared in low winter temperatures. These changes in protein and lipid contents in fish body herein could be linked with changes in their synthesis and/or deposition rate in fish body (Abdel-Tawwab et al. , 2006). Glucose, serum protein, and serum lipids decreased significantly, meanwhile AST, ALT, and creatinine increased significantly in fish fed 5. 0 g GRC/kg diet. In this regard, Gagne et al. (2006) stated that in rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss, long-term exposure to caffeine could lead to lipid peroxidation. Furthermore, caffeine is an inhibitor of glycogen phosphorylase in the mantle tissue of mussel (Mytilus galloprovincialis; Serrano et al., 1995) and of lactate dehydrogenase in the muscle of rabbit (Gardiner and Whiteley, 1985). The increase in AST and ALT activities is an indicative to liver dysfunction and the increase in creatinine is an indicative to kidney dysfunction. These results suggest that GRC may contain compounds that caused some kind of stress on fish affecting these biochemical variables. 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